Before creating a program of instruction or education in the responsible conduct of research, it is essential to first ask: what are the goals for teaching responsible conduct of research?Cognitive learning strategies while some courses may be created only in response to federal or institutional requirements, it is nevertheless important for an instructor to assess what outcomes he/she hopes to achieve, and what changes he/she wants to evoke in a student’s thinking, attitudes and actions.Cognitive learning strategies currently there is no agreed upon set of goals or objectives across institutional training programs in RCR (kalichman and plemmons, 2007); however, most teaching goals could fit into one or more of the following four general categories: knowledge, skills, attitudes, and behavior.Cognitive learning strategies the current requirements for RCR education, and these different pedagogical goals, are the subject of this section.

Before addressing these goals, it is important to recognize that many scientists are skeptical about the value of explicit education in RCR.Cognitive learning strategies while this skepticism is healthy and sometimes appropriate, many arguments against instruction are based on some of the misconceptions described below.Cognitive learning strategies isn't responsible conduct just a matter of following regulations?

• although there are explicit regulations that govern some aspects of scientific practice -- for instance, the treatment of human subjects -- these regulations are insufficient to determine every choice a scientist will need to make.Cognitive learning strategies moreover, scientists must always interpret regulations in their scientific practice. Treating human subjects responsibly involves more than just knowing regulations, and so too with other issues of RCR.Cognitive learning strategies this point is sometimes expressed by saying that RCR is more about conscience than it is about mere compliance. Additionally, many scientific practices are not directly covered by regulations, and scientists need to know how to proceed responsibly and with integrity in the absence of regulatory guidance.Cognitive learning strategies

• where trainees learn by example, they must discern which features are important and which are not. For instance, they might learn that the reagents used are more critical than the style of music played in the lab.Cognitive learning strategies even if they are trained to do research responsibly, then, they may or may not distinguish the elements that are matters of responsibility and integrity from those that are matters of style or manners.Cognitive learning strategies explicit instruction in RCR can serve as an adjunct to and reinforce learning by example, by making trainees reflective about where and when issues of responsibility impinge on their research.Cognitive learning strategies

• it is rarely the case that people are intent on doing wrong. Failures of research integrity that result from ignorance or carelessness might be averted by even a modicum of attention to RCR issues.Cognitive learning strategies furthermore, even though a course in research ethics may not set straight a scientist who is intent on falsifying data or mistreating research subjects, such a scientist will interact with peers and coauthors who will be in a position to recognize misconduct.Cognitive learning strategies A course in research ethics may be enough to make them more reflective and mindful of ethical issues.

• it's wrong to think that RCR is distinct from the demand to do good science.Cognitive learning strategies promoting the integrity of science is one of the demands of responsible conduct. There may be times when it would be possible to learn something new only by acting irresponsibly, and that knowledge would then come at too high a price.Cognitive learning strategies science is not a disembodied pursuit of truth; it is also a human project.

• since science is self-policing, it may be tempting to think that the scientific community can handle any matters of responsibility by its own methods.Cognitive learning strategies this is already rebutted by the creation of regulations to govern scientific research due to past failures of the scientific community to minimize and mitigate misconduct by some scientists.Cognitive learning strategies moreover, RCR education raises issues for scientists in a way that will promote reflection and consciousness of their roles as members of the scientific community.Cognitive learning strategies thus, RCR education can help science take care of itself.

The first such requirement was for national institutes of health (NIH) training grants to provide an opportunity for trainees to receive instruction in RCR (NIH, 1989 and 1992).Cognitive learning strategies A recent update refining this policy is more explicit about the audience, frequency, and format of RCR instruction: update on the requirement for instruction in the responsible conduct of research

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While the national science foundation (NSF) has had a longstanding interest in education in the ethical practice of science, it has only recently introduced a broad requirement for all undergraduate, graduate, and postdoctoral researchers receiving funding from the NSF.Cognitive learning strategies the requirement can be found at: chapter 4 of NSF grantee standards and additional information can be found at: frequently asked questions.

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The purpose of teaching research ethics is to promote integrity in the work of scientists, scholars, and professionals involved in the field of scientific and scholarly inquiry and practice.Cognitive learning strategies responsible and ethical research behavior of researchers, research institutions, and government agencies has historically relied on a system of self-regulation based on shared ethical principles and generally accepted practices.Cognitive learning strategies interest in the teaching of responsible conduct of research (RCR) has surged in response to federal requirements for PHS-funded researchers to receive RCR training.Cognitive learning strategies recent national attention to highly publicized cases of fraud, plagiarism, and other instances of professional misconduct have only elevated the importance of teaching RCR.Cognitive learning strategies

Blatant forms of research misconduct have included cases of fabrication, falsification or plagiarism, resulting in political attention and intense reaction.Cognitive learning strategies the consequences of such wrongdoing are not only lost opportunities in science, but also a risk for decreasing public trust. At the opening of hearings on scientific fraud before the committee on science and technology, subcommittee on investigations and oversight, chairman albert gore of tennessee stated, “at the base of our investment in research lies the trust of the american people and the integrity of the scientific enterprise”(US congress, house, 1981).Cognitive learning strategies

Representative john dingell (1993) in his shattuck lecture summarized high profile cases of medical research misconduct that resulted in political scrutiny in the 1980s and 1990s, leading to federal policies and guidelines requiring RCR instruction.Cognitive learning strategies research fraud became a governmental concern, "a matter of politics not science" due in part to the reactions of the scientific leadership to instances of research fraud and misconduct (lafollette, 1994).Cognitive learning strategies

In response to the many instances of research misconduct and questionable research practices at major research institutions in the 1980s, the institute of medicine in a 1989 report noted “[I]nstruction in the standards and ethics of research is essential to the proper education of scientists.” following implementation by the NIH of a requirement that training grant programs provide training in the responsible conduct of research, many formal RCR training programs have now been established.Cognitive learning strategies although NIH mandated instruction in RCR, specific goals and core competencies were not defined. Nor does the requirement specify a particular format or curriculum.Cognitive learning strategies other governmental and nongovernmental advisory bodies have endorsed RCR education and training. These agencies recognize the need for curriculum and core competency development (DHHS, 1995; korenman,SG, shipp, AC, 1994; national academy of sciences, 1992).Cognitive learning strategies more recently, a legislative mandate calls for the national science foundation (NSF) to “… provide appropriate training and oversight in the responsible and ethical conduct of research to undergraduate students, graduate students and postdoctoral researchers participating in” grant proposals funded by the NSF ( P.L. 110-69, the 21st century competitiveness act of 2007).Cognitive learning strategies

An intrinsic assumption for discussing the goals and core competencies for teaching RCR is that ethics can be taught. One must first believe that RCR instruction can influence the thinking processes that underlie behavior, and that students can learn the conventions and rules for appropriate research conduct, to reflect on choices and decisions regarding RCR, to develop ethical sensitivity and critical thinking skills, and can learn to effectively resolve ethical conflicts in new situations.Cognitive learning strategies in a review of the university of chicago’s program on scientific integrity, sachs and siegler (1993) discussed this question of benefits in teaching research ethics.Cognitive learning strategies they cited similar discussions relative to teaching medical ethics to medical students and residents (miles et al, 1989; clouser, 1975). Critics of teaching medical ethics said that a trainee’s character and moral constitution were determined by his or her upbringing many years before reaching medical school or residency training.Cognitive learning strategies however, in a study of the benefits of medical ethics courses, a large number of practicing physicians responded that ethics courses were beneficial for teaching physicians to identify values conflicts, for increasing sensitivities to patients' needs, for increasing their understanding of their own values, and dealing more openly with moral dilemmas (pellegrino et al, 1985).Cognitive learning strategies

There has been increased focus on developing moral awareness about ethical issues in scientific research. Rest and colleagues (1986) demonstrated that a person’s moral development—the way the person approaches and resolves ethical issues—continues to change throughout formal education.Cognitive learning strategies they proposed a four-component model of morality, posing the question: when a person is behaving morally, what must we suppose has happened psychologically to produce the behavior?Cognitive learning strategies

From this work, bebeau (1994) suggests that training in ethical reasoning can be effective in increasing the ability of emerging professionals to engage in ethical behavior in scientific research (rest, 1986; rest et al, 1986; bebeau, 1991; piper et al, 1993; bebeau et al, 1995).Cognitive learning strategies RCR instruction, which includes training in ethical reasoning and decision-making, can help trainees become more sensitive to and more capable of recognizing areas of ethical conflict in research and scientific training.Cognitive learning strategies it can help encourage students to reflect on and understand their own values in a deeper way, and this may be beneficial when faced with real-life pressures of publishing, obtaining grants and advancing up the academic ladder (sachs and siegler, 1993).Cognitive learning strategies

Ultimately the goal is to cultivate thinking processes that develop moral behavior, which in turn leads to professionally ethical behavior. "A person must have sufficient perseverance, ego strength, and implementation to be able to follow through on his/her intention to behave morally, to withstand fatigue and flagging will, and to overcome obstacles" (rest et al, 1986).Cognitive learning strategies

Swazey, anderson and lewis (1993) surveyed doctoral candidates and faculty from 99 of the largest graduate departments in chemistry, civil engineering, microbiology and sociology to measure the rates of exposure to perceived misconduct in academic research.Cognitive learning strategies their study highlights the significant influence that a faculty member’s behavior may have on the formation of a student’s values and standards.Cognitive learning strategies equally important, graduate students perceptions about the position of their universities relative to RCR are formulated by the university’s willingness, or lack of it, to undergo self-examination.Cognitive learning strategies

Sachs and siegler (1993) believe that teaching scientific integrity and the responsible conduct of research may benefit the research community in general not just course participants.Cognitive learning strategies science itself is fundamentally grounded in ethical values, notably truthfulness and benefiting others. Involvement of an individual in producing knowledge creates an ethical responsibility for its outcome.Cognitive learning strategies