Many of these drugs act upon serotonin or 5-hydroxytryptamine (5-HT) which is a neurotransmitter. It is found in the gastrointestinal tract, in blood cells (platelets) and in the brain and spinal cord (central nervous system).Cognitive learning theory in the classroom it is known to affect the feel of well-being and happiness and can affect mood, appetite and sleep. Serotonin has an effect on memory and learning.Cognitive learning theory in the classroom serotonin is a neurotransmitter that affects the brain and plays a role in aggression, pain, sleep, appetite, anxiety, depression, migraine, and vomiting.Cognitive learning theory in the classroom several different classes of psychiatric drugs like anti-depressants, anti-psychotics, anti-anxiety drugs, anti- migraine drugs and psychedelic drugs affect the level of this neurotransmitter inside the neuro-synapses of the brain.Cognitive learning theory in the classroom ssris act on the brain to raise levels of the neurotransmitter serotonin without raising the levels of norepinephrine. This was thought to be a benefit in treatment of depression, and later anxiety, panic, social phobia, obsessive- compulsive disorder (OCD) , and many other conditions.Cognitive learning theory in the classroom

Drugs such as tricyclic antidepressants (TCA’s) and selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (ssris) inhibit the reuptake of serotonin, making it stay in the synapse longer.Cognitive learning theory in the classroom the benefits derived by these drugs may decrease in selected patients after a long-term treatment. Serotonin syndrome is a medical consequence of these kinds of psychiatric drugs.Cognitive learning theory in the classroom serotonin syndrome which can also be called serotonin toxicity is really a poisoning and is the predictable consequence of excess serotonin activity in the brain and elsewhere in the body which can be caused by therapeutic use of these medications.Cognitive learning theory in the classroom no laboratory tests can currently confirm the diagnosis and it is usually diagnosed base on the patient’s symptoms and clinical history. Serotonin syndrome may be mistaken for a viral illness, anxiety, neurological disorder, various kinds of poisonings, or a worsening psychiatric condition.Cognitive learning theory in the classroom the serotonin syndrome presents characteristic clinical signs but can be mistaken for the more dangerous and life threatening neuroleptic malignant syndrome.Cognitive learning theory in the classroom this presents as twitching, tremors, rigidity, fever, confusion, or agitation.

Tapering off very, very, very slowly has proven the safest and most effective method of withdrawal of psychiatric medications.Cognitive learning theory in the classroom when discontinuing or withdrawing from a psychiatric medication that affects the brains serotonin level, a dangerous situation can occur a condition called the "SSRI discontinuation syndrome." when serotonergic activity dramatically decreases because the neurons aren't able to communicate properly with each other anymore.Cognitive learning theory in the classroom as a result of this decreased serotonergic activity, side-effects occur. Sometimes these side-effects are reported by the patient as feeling like electric shocks, zaps or shivers in the head (brain) or sometimes like “pins and needles” in the skin or like a light flickering in his/her head.Cognitive learning theory in the classroom these symptoms are sometimes so severe that the patient feels confused or like on the verge of blacking out or losing consciousness. These sensory disturbances may make the patient feel very confused and may involve short periods of short-term memory loss or absences.Cognitive learning theory in the classroom these absences are actually petit mal seizures which may be invisible to the observer and not recognized as epileptic activity.

Neruoleptic malignant syndrome or NMS is a rare, but life-threatening, idiosyncratic reaction to a medication which can be fatal.Cognitive learning theory in the classroom NMS is caused by both 1st generation and 2nd generation neuroleptic medications, atypical anti-psychotics (clozapine, olanzapine, risperidone, quetiapine, ziprazidone), butyrophenones, phenothiazines, dopamineric drugs and lithium.Cognitive learning theory in the classroom the syndrome is characterized by fever, muscle cramps, unstable blood pressure and muscular tremors. Neuroleptic malignant syndrome (NMS) causes changes in mental status, difficulty thinking, agitation, delirium and even coma.Cognitive learning theory in the classroom NMS causes an extremely high temperature, profuse sweating, severe muscle rigidity, increased respiratory rate and increased heart rate. Altered mental status can be either agitation or lethargy.Cognitive learning theory in the classroom this is a truly life threatening emergency requiring emergency treatment. Treatment involves immediate withdrawal from the medication and immediate supportive care usually in an ICU with IV fluids.Cognitive learning theory in the classroom correction of electrolyte abnormalities and treatment for metabolic acidosis is necessary. Agitation can be controlled with benzodiazapines, and a drug to lower dopamine levels (dopamine agonist) can be used.Cognitive learning theory in the classroom high blood myoglobin levels can damage kidneys. Because NMS is fairly rare, it may not be recognized immediately thus delaying treatment. Persons presenting with NMS can have muscle rigidity, an elevated white blood count, an elevated creatine phosphokinase - CPK blood level and bradykinesia (an inability to adjust one's body position).Cognitive learning theory in the classroom patients may experience a hypertensive crisis and metabolic acidosis. If recognized and treated immediately then only 10% of patients will die, however if not treated early death rates can be as high as 38% of cases.Cognitive learning theory in the classroom symptoms may be confused with the symptoms of mental illness thus doctors may erroneously prescribe higher doses of medication thus worsening the NMS - this can delay proper treatment and can lead to death.Cognitive learning theory in the classroom men under 40 years old are more likely to get NMS. Memory impairment is a consistent temporary effect of NMS and can sometimes persist after recovery.Cognitive learning theory in the classroom

Mental health professionals have an ethical duty to inform parents about the potential lethality of drug combinations as well as adverse effects of individual drugs.Cognitive learning theory in the classroom yet some psychiatric drugs actually are combinations of drugs. As a medication for ADHD, adderall was approved for unrestricted use for treatment of ADHD by the FDA in march 1996.Cognitive learning theory in the classroom adderall is a combination of stimulants (a combination of dextroamphetamine and amphetamine). In 2005 adderall XR was pulled off the market in canada after regulators linked the drug to 20 sudden deaths and 12 strokes.Cognitive learning theory in the classroom fourteen of the deaths and two of the 12 strokes were in children. According to canadian researchers the adverse reactions were not associated with overdose, misuse or abuse of adderall XR.Cognitive learning theory in the classroom the effects of amphetamines and methamphetamine are similar to cocaine, but their onset is slower and their duration is longer. (U.S. Drug enforcement administration (DEA) fact sheet).Cognitive learning theory in the classroom

Stimulants are designed to enhance dopamine transmission. Atypical antipsychotics are intended to block it. Mental health professionals have an ethical duty to inform parents about the potential lethality of drug combinations as well as adverse effects of individual drugs such as the combination of both an antipsychotic with a stimulant.Cognitive learning theory in the classroom the use of stimulant plus atypical antipsychotic places the patient at risk of sudden death due to stroke or dysrhythmia (heart arrhythmia); neuroleptic malignant syndrome; tardive phenomena (irreversible movement abnormalities of face, tongue, neck, limbs, trunk); and diabetes.Cognitive learning theory in the classroom in one sense, the pharmacodynamic effects of stimulants plus antipsychotics would be expected to oppose each other. In another sense, the brain’s adaptations to each class of medication might be synergistic.Cognitive learning theory in the classroom this enhances the risk of movement abnormalities, dysphoria (an emotional condition in which a person experiences intense feelings of depression and discontent) , and psychosis.Cognitive learning theory in the classroom there are neurotoxic effects of use of stimulants and antipsychotics together; the dangers include the inhibition of neurogenesis and the induction of neurodegenerative changes.Cognitive learning theory in the classroom in other words, they prevent the healing process and can cause permanent brain damage and dysfunction.