GHB, or gamma-hydroxybutanoic acid, is a carboxylic acid substituted with an additional hydroxy group. GHB contains a four carbon chain with a terminal carbon bonded to a hydroxy group (OH-) and double bonded to an oxygen group to form a carboxyl unit; this is butanoic acid.Characteristics of cognitive learning strategies at the other end of the four carbon change at R γ, GHB is substituted with a hydroxy group.

However, at therapeutic doses, GHB reaches much higher concentrations in the brain and activates GABA B receptors, which are primarily responsible for its sedative effects. [12] GHB's sedative effects are blocked by GABA B antagonists.Characteristics of cognitive learning strategies as the GABA system is the most prolific inhibitory receptor set within the brain, its modulation results in the sedating (or calming effects) of GHB on the nervous system.Characteristics of cognitive learning strategies while research into the GHB receptor is limited, there is evidence that activation of the GHB receptor in some brain areas results in the release of glutamate, the principal excitatory neurotransmitter. [13] drugs that selectively activate the GHB receptor cause absence seizures in high doses, as do GHB and GABA B agonists. [14]

characteristics of cognitive learning strategies

Activation of both the GHB receptor and GABA B is responsible for the addictive profile of GHB. GHB's effect on dopamine release is biphasic. [15] this means that while low concentrations stimulate dopamine release via the GHB receptor, [16] higher concentrations inhibit dopamine release via GABA B receptors. [17] after an initial phase of inhibition, dopamine release is then increased via the GHB receptor.Characteristics of cognitive learning strategies

GHB induces the accumulation of either a derivative of tryptophan or tryptophan itself, possibly by increasing tryptophan transport across the blood–brain barrier.Characteristics of cognitive learning strategies GHB-induced stimulation may be due to this increase in tryptophan transport to the brain and in its uptake by serotonergic cells. As the serotonergic system may be involved in the regulation of sleep, mood, and anxiety, the stimulation of this system by high doses of GHB may be involved in certain neuropharmacological events induced by GHB administration.Characteristics of cognitive learning strategies

These findings may explain the paradoxical mix of sedative and stimulatory properties of GHB as well as the so-called "rebound" effect reported by individuals using GHB as a sleeping agent wherein they awake suddenly after several hours of GHB-induced deep sleep.Characteristics of cognitive learning strategies over time, the concentration of GHB in the system decreases below the threshold for significant GABA B receptor activation and activates predominantly the GHB receptor, leading to wakefulness.Characteristics of cognitive learning strategies

The effects listed below are based upon the subjective effects index and personal experiences of psychonautwiki contributors. These effects should be taken with a grain of salt and will rarely (if ever) occur all at once, but heavier doses will increase the chances of inducing a full range of effects.Characteristics of cognitive learning strategies likewise, adverse effects become much more likely on higher doses and may include serious injury or death.

GHB is considered to be a safe and non-toxic substance when used responsibly or medically.Characteristics of cognitive learning strategies the LD 50 is above the active dosage, and there is no danger of acute toxicity. However, it can be dangerous when used as a recreational drug or abused.Characteristics of cognitive learning strategies there have been many negative reports from recreational users who have overdosed, combined GHB with alcohol or other drugs, or accidentally dosed themselves unexpectedly. [19]

characteristics of cognitive learning strategies

As an endogenous regulator of energy metabolism and a natural neurotransmitter, GHB is well-known to the brain and organs which are used to its effects and have highly efficient systems for metabolizing it safely. [21] the substance is eliminated (that is, back to baseline levels) in 2-4 hours and continues to be so even after twice-daily doses for a week. [22] in one european study, no adverse effects were reported after several years of regular recreational use. [23]

characteristics of cognitive learning strategies

Accidental ingestions of GHB have also occurred due to inadequate storage methods. If GHB is put into a clear liquid, glass, or bottle, it can be easily mistaken for water.Characteristics of cognitive learning strategies it is recommended to clearly label your GHB in writing and dye the liquid with blue food coloring so it no longer resembles a drinkable beverage.Characteristics of cognitive learning strategies it is also recommended to store your GHB in a container that no one would drink out of.

One study found that repeated administration of GHB to rats for 15 days drastically reduced the number of neurons and non-neuronal cells within the hippocampus and in the prefrontal cortex.Characteristics of cognitive learning strategies with doses of 10 mg/kg of GHB, they were decreased by 61% in the hippocampus region and 32% in the prefrontal cortex, and with 100 mg/kg, they were decreased by 38% and 9%, respectively.Characteristics of cognitive learning strategies this paper demonstrates contradicting effects on neuronal loss, with lower doses (10 mg/kg) producing the most neurotoxicity, and higher doses (100 mg/kg) producing less.Characteristics of cognitive learning strategies

To avoid a possible overdose of GHB, it is important to start with a low dose and work your way up slowly by increasing the dosage in small increments.Characteristics of cognitive learning strategies while a common recreational dose is 3g, a dose of 5g - 10g can result in convulsions, unconsciousness and vomiting. Doses above 10 grams are associated with a risk of death. [2] one must also factor in the added difficulty of knowing the purity of the product (among other problems like its hygroscopy may lower the concentration of GHB in one solution, which is the form which is commonly bought and sold in the illicit market).Characteristics of cognitive learning strategies this makes it hard for even the experienced user to dose properly. [29] tolerance and addiction potential

GHB is moderately physically and psychologically addictive.Characteristics of cognitive learning strategies the frequent use of GHB can cause withdrawal symptoms similar to those caused by other depressants such as alcohol and benzodiazepines if abruptly discontinued. [31] [32] these symptoms seem to depend on the dosage and the length of time the drug was used for.Characteristics of cognitive learning strategies light to moderate users often experience anxiety, insomnia, sleep-related problems, and tremors whereas heavy use can cause severe withdrawal symptoms like delirium, psychosis, and hallucinations. [33] [30]

characteristics of cognitive learning strategies

Tolerance will develop to the sedative-hypnotic effects within several weeks of continuous use. After cessation, the tolerance returns to baseline in 7 - 14 days.Characteristics of cognitive learning strategies withdrawal symptoms or rebound symptoms may occur after ceasing usage abruptly following a few weeks or longer of steady dosing, and may necessitate a gradual dose reduction.Characteristics of cognitive learning strategies GHB presents cross-tolerance with 1,4-butanediol and GBL, since these act as prodrugs for GHB. Cross-tolerance with alcohol and baclofen has been shown in rats. [35] [36] dangerous interactions

characteristics of cognitive learning strategies

Although many psychoactive substances are reasonably safe to use on their own, they can quickly become dangerous or even life-threatening when taken with other substances.Characteristics of cognitive learning strategies the following lists some known dangerous combinations, but cannot be guaranteed to include all of them. Independent research should always be conducted to ensure that a combination of two or more substances is safe to consume.Characteristics of cognitive learning strategies some interactions listed have been sourced from tripsit.